1) Yes, by 15% I mean 15% of the planets, not 15% of the time you Explore

And yes, it would be something like that. Like Sp3ktr3 pointed out, sometimes you end up with just 8 even on Random Huge-sized maps
2) I don't think so. I've looked through the files that I thought would be relevant (gameplay.constants, GalaxyScenarioDef, and the planet/artifact files) and there's nothing jumping out as saying "this is how it works". My educated guess is that each stage of the upgrade is basically a chance to find.. so sometimes you find it on the first try, sometimes on the second. I've had both, and I've had variations of finding a bonus on the first hit, then an artifact and the reverse of an artifact first and then a bonus.
3) No, that's populated properly by default, as far as I know. What I mean is that some maps set artifacts on specific planet - when you make a map, you can make an artifact always appear on a specific planet, ignoring the random chance. There are only a few maps that do this, to my knowledge.
4) Like 2), I'm not sure. I'm guessing it's random-ish.
5) Not quite sure what you mean, but there are several relevant files. Firstly, each map file actually has this:
planetArtifactDensity .15
planetBonusDensity .40
Each artifact and planet bonus has an .entity file that basically sets what it does. Each planet has an .entity file where you can set the number of Exploration upgrade stages and costs. There's nothing that I could readily find that points out the chance of finding an artifact on the first vs a second explore stage, though. In the case of planet bonuses, each planet type entity file also specifies which bonuses the planet may be randomly assigned.